The political-economy perspective on women’s rights

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In an official statement on national television, Eva Perón announced the extension of suffrage to Argentina's women: Women of this country, this very instant I receive from the Government the law that enshrines our civic rights. However, the final distribution of seats still favours the most represented sex as each time a candidate withdraws or moves to another political function, the next person on the list takes place which would be male. Archived from on 4 March 2016. Notably, the movement for Mexican women's rights there was linked to the movement to exclude and expel Chinese in Mexico, racial essentialism that was also seen in the suffrage movement in the U.

It sought votes for women and the right to hold legislative office on the same basis as men. Venezuela After the , women started participating more actively in politics.

The political-economy perspective on women’s rights

Article 13 of the Constitution guarantees the principle of equality to all citizens, regardless of ancestry, sex, race, language, place of origin, religion, political or ideological beliefs, education, economic situation, social circumstances or sexual orientation. In December 2013, the Council of Ministers approved the fifth National Plan for gender equality, citizenship and non-discrimination 2014-2017. The National Plan aims to promote gender equality in all areas of governance, across all Ministries. In particular, the plan aims to strengthen gender equality in the areas of education, health and the labour market. Article 36 3 of the Constitution specifies that spouses have equal rights in terms of parental authority and upbringing their children. In case of divorce, both spouses come to an agreement that protects the interests of the child. Otherwise, a court judgement determines who has the custody of the child. Since 2008 both spouses have parental responsibilities instead of parental power over their children Article 3. º R 84 about Parental Responsibilities of 28 February 1984, approved by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. The Civil Code does not discriminate against women in terms of divorce rights. Both women and men have the same right to initiate divorce. Also, the rights and obligations of both spouses relating to properties and other assets remain the same after a divorce. The plan also covers other types of gender-based violence, such as female genital mutilation and sexual assault. The last three governments prioritised domestic violence and ensured awareness-raising campaigns, including within law enforcement agencies. The Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality CIG regularly runs awareness-raising campaigns against domestic violence. This service was created and coordinated by the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality, in collaboration with other public and private organisations, including the Portuguese Red Cross. Its main objectives include: to guarantee an immediate intervention in situations of emergency; to increase the confidence and sense of protection of the victims, as well as their quality of life; to minimise vulnerability situations of the victims by contributing to increasing their autonomy and reinsertion in society; and mobilise adequate police resources. The government supports victims file complaints with the appropriate authorities and protecting the victim against the abuser; also, the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality operated 37 safe houses for victims of domestic violence which included food, shelter, health and legal assistance and maintained a 24hours telephone service. There was also an awareness campaign against domestic violence sponsored by the government which trained health professionals, proposed legislation to improve legal assistance to victims, and signed protocols with local authorities to assist victims. According to Violence against women: an EU-wide survey 2014 , in Portugal 19% of women have been victims of domestic violence and almost every woman surveyed 93% thinks that violence against women is either very common or fairly common in her coun­try. In 2013 the Portuguese Association for Victim Support APAV, 2013 received reports of 17 384 cases of domestic violence. In the same year, the police authorities PSP and GNR received reports of27 318 cases of domestic violence more 640 than in 2012. In 81% of cases victims were female. There were 40 cases of attempted or actual domestic homicide registered. Article 164 of the Criminal Code defines rape as a criminal act by the use of force or threats or by using authority over a dependent. Portugal does not provide specialised services on sexual violence against women such as rape crisis centres or a specific helpline. It means that a case classified as domestic violence, but that includes sexual violence, is a public crime. In 2013 Portuguese Association for Victim Support APAV, 2014 received reports of 84 cases of rape against adults and children. The Annual Report of Internal Security indicates that in 2013, 344 cases of rape were reported to police authorities. In almost 50% of the cases 164 victims knew the rapists. Portuguese national legislation conceptualises sexual harassment as discrimination and not explicitly as sex discrimination. In the workplace, there is harassment in general, harassment based on a discriminatory factor including sex but also age, race, disability, place of birth, religious or political convictions, etc. As for the civil servant legislation, the definition only includes two forms of harassment: harassment based on a discriminatory factor and sexual harassment. In terms of preventive measures, the employer has a duty to ensure good working conditions for its employees, both from a physical and from a moral point of view, as provided by article 59 No. This means that the employer has to prevent violent behaviour in order to ensure a peaceful working environment. If there is a case of sexual harassment in the workplace, the victim can present a claim to the employer; start a complaints procedure to the Labour Inspection Services, which depend from the Employment Minister; start an advisory procedure to the Commission for Equality in Labour and Employment Comissão para a Igualdade no Trabalho e no Emprego ; or start a judicial procedure to obtain compensation. Sanctions for the employer can be in the form of payment for damage compensation, or a fine imposed by the Labour Inspection Services. However, sexual harassment is not a crime typified in the Portuguese Penal Code. Article 163, however, determines the crime of sexual coercion, which includes sexual harassment practices. The project focuses on sexual harassment in public places and at work. In 2012, the Association for Victim Support APAV received reports of 86 cases of sexual harassment. Punishment may vary between 2 to 10 years. Portugal adopted a third Action Plan for the Prevention and Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation 2014-2017 , which forms part of the fifth National Plan for the Prevention and Fight against Domestic and Gender Violence 2014-2017. The Union of Women and Alternative Response UMAR created in 2004 a workgroup called Observatório das Mulheres Assassinadas OMA which examines each year the cases of femicide in the country. According to OMA in 2013 were 37 femicides in Portugal. The rate of femicide in 2013 by perpetrators associated or members of the family identified by the Observatory of Murdered Women of UMAR was 21 murder crimes. The overall rate of femicide was 33, which is lower than in the preceding years. Portugal also adopted a third National Plan for the Prevention and Fight against Human Trafficking 2014-2017 , which aims to reinforce the protection mechanisms of victims, improve cooperation between public authorities and civil society organisations, and adapt the national response to new challenges such as new forms of trafficking. The plan is integrated in the fifth National Plan for the Prevention and Fight against Domestic and Gender Violence. US Department of State 2013. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights 2014 p. The government has strengthened female entrepreneurship in the framework of the Human Potential Thematic Operational Programme of the National Strategic Reference Framework 2007-2013. Actions include research, lobbying, dissemination, communication, awareness-raising and training. The law reserves to each gender a minimum of one-third of the places on electoral lists in national, local, and European parliamentary elections. Since 2006, Portugal has a quota system for the least-represented sex in parliamentary elections lists, which requires every third candidate on the list to be the least-represented sex. However, the final distribution of seats still favours the most represented sex as each time a candidate withdraws or moves to another political function, the next person on the list takes place which would be male. In addition, candidate lists for the elections to local governments must be composed in a way such as to promote a minimum representation of 33% of each sex Articles 1 and 2 1. The number of women ministers in Portugal decreased from 31% in 2011 to 18% in 2012. Overall, Portuguese media continue to represent women as mothers and wives. The government introduced some policies to promote less discriminatory representations of gender in the media, but these policies remain sporadic and rely on voluntary participation by media professionals. Gender stereotypes remain constant in the media and advertising. The Union of Women and Alternative Response UMAR created a workgroup called Observatório das Representações de Género nos Media which monitors, each year, the contents produced by the Portuguese media and analyses discriminatory discourses and practices. Maternity and paternity leave have been replaced by parental leave in Portugal. If it is shared, the parental leave can be extended by another 30-day period reaching a total length of 180 days. Allowances are paid by the State through the Social Security system. All leave counts as pensionable service. The amount of the initial parental leave benefit depends on the option that was chosen concerning its length and on whether the leave is shared between parents. If the leave is not shared between the parents, the leave can be 120 days at 100% of earnings or 150 days at 80% of earnings. If the leave is shared i. A part of the leave up to 72 days can be used exclusively by the mother. A mandatory leave of 42 days or 6 weeks is to be taken immediately after childbirth, while a voluntary leave of up 30 days can be taken before delivery. Other policy developments include the extension of mandatory paternity leave to ten it used to be 5 consecutive or non-consecutive working days, to be taken within 30 days from birth 5 consecutive days must be taken immediately after birth. This is paid at a 100% rate of the salary. An additional optional paternity leave was shortened to 10 it used to be 15 consecutive or non-consecutive working days paid at 100% of the salary. There have been increasing take-up rates of leave during the 2000s, especially by fathers. Mothers still take up more leave and for longer. In 2009, 53,278 fathers took-up their paternity leave that is, 62. In 2012, this number diminished to 56,289, but the proportion increased 73. All employees with a record of six months continuous or intermittent; the latter is only possible if the period without contributions is below six months of insurance contributions are eligible. Constitution of the Portuguese Republic 1976 , article 44 Portuguese Nationality Act 2006 , Article 1 1 Constitution of the Portuguese Republic 1976. CEDAW 2006 Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Sixth Periodic Report of States Parties: Portugal.

The majority of Switzerland's men 67% voted against it, but in some French-speaking women obtained the vote. The government considers other EU countries to be portugal womens rights countries of pan. The Ministry of Labor and Social Solidarity effectively monitored compliance through its regional inspectors. As of October 15, 2,289 individuals 20 percent of the prison population were in preventive detention, an increase from the previous year. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Jesus The government effectively implemented laws and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. In almost 50% of the cases 164 victims knew the rapists. The law also criminalizes the trafficking of children under 16 years of age for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Freedom of Gusto The constitution and law provide for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice.